Radiologic Management of Venous Thromboembolism-Inferior Vena Cava Filters

Variant: 1 Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with no contraindication to anticoagulation.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Anticoagulation	Usually Appropriate
Retrievable IVC filter	May Be Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 2 Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with contraindication to anticoagulation, major complication of anticoagulation, or failure of anticoagulation.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Retrievable IVC filter	Usually Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	May Be Appropriate

Variant: 3 Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Observation with serial imaging	Usually Appropriate
Anticoagulation	May Be Appropriate
Retrievable IVC filter	Usually Not Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 4 Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Anticoagulation	Usually Appropriate
Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy	Usually Appropriate
Balloon pulmonary angioplasty	May Be Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	May Be Appropriate
Retrievable IVC filter	May Be Appropriate

Variant: 5 Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Intermittent pneumatic compression devices	Usually Appropriate
Prophylactic anticoagulation	Usually Appropriate
Retrievable IVC filter	May Be Appropriate
Surveillance US	May Be Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 6 Proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Anticoagulation	Usually Appropriate
Retrievable IVC filter	May Be Appropriate
Permanent IVC filter	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 7 Indwelling prophylactic retrievable inferior vena cava filter, resolution of risk factors for venous thromboembolism.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Venography at time of retrieval procedure	Usually Appropriate
US duplex Doppler lower extremities prior to retrieval	May Be Appropriate
CT venography prior to retrieval	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 8 Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter for venous thromboembolism, now tolerating or completed therapeutic anticoagulation.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Venography at time of retrieval procedure	Usually Appropriate
US duplex Doppler lower extremities prior to retrieval	May Be Appropriate (Disagreement)
CT venography prior to retrieval	Usually Not Appropriate

Variant: 9 Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter with failed first retrieval attempt.

Procedure	Appropriateness Category
Re-attempt retrieval with advanced techniques	Usually Appropriate
Convert to permanent device	May Be Appropriate
Refer for surgical evaluation for retrieval	Usually Not Appropriate

Panel Members

Jeet Minocha, MD^a; Aaron M. Smith, MD^b; Baljendra S. Kapoor, MD^c; Nicholas Fidelman, MD^d; Thomas R. Cain, MD^e; Drew M. Caplin, MD^f; Jens Eldrup-Jorgensen, MD^g; Khashayar Farsad, MD, PhD^h; Amit Gupta, MDⁱ; Margaret H. Lee, MD^j; Joseph J. McBride, MD^k; Lisa K. Moores, MD^l; Paul J. Rochon, MD^m; Jonathan M. Lorenz, MDⁿ.

Summary of Literature Review

Introduction/Background

Devices

Discussion of Procedures by Variant

Variant 1: Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with no contraindication to anticoagulation.

Variant 1: Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with no contraindication to anticoagulation.
A. Anticoagulation

Variant 1: Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with no contraindication to anticoagulation.
B. Permanent IVC filter

Variant 1: Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with no contraindication to anticoagulation.
C. Retrievable IVC filter

Variant 2: Acute venous thromboembolism (proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg or pulmonary embolism) with contraindication to anticoagulation, major complication of anticoagulation, or failure of anticoagulation.

Variant 3: Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.

Variant 3: Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.
A. Anticoagulation

Variant 3: Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.
B. Observation with serial imaging

Variant 3: Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.
C. Permanent IVC filter

Variant 3: Isolated acute distal deep vein thrombosis of the leg.
D. Retrievable IVC filter

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).
A. Anticoagulation

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).
B. Balloon pulmonary angioplasty

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).
C. Permanent IVC filter

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).
D. Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy

Variant 4: Chronic venous thromboembolism (eg, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension).
E. Retrievable IVC filter

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).
A. Intermittent pneumatic compression devices

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).
B. Permanent IVC filter

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).
C. Prophylactic anticoagulation

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).
D. Retrievable IVC filter

Variant 5: Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk patient (eg, major trauma, traumatic brain injury, etc).
E. Surveillance US

Variant 6: Proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis.

Variant 6: Proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis.
A. Anticoagulation

Variant 6: Proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis.
B. Permanent IVC filter

Variant 6: Proximal deep vein thrombosis of the leg undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis.
C. Retrievable IVC filter

Variant 7: Indwelling prophylactic retrievable inferior vena cava filter, resolution of risk factors for venous thromboembolism.

Variant 7: Indwelling prophylactic retrievable inferior vena cava filter, resolution of risk factors for venous thromboembolism.
A. CT venography prior to retrieval

Variant 7: Indwelling prophylactic retrievable inferior vena cava filter, resolution of risk factors for venous thromboembolism.
B. US duplex Doppler lower extremities prior to retrieval

Variant 7: Indwelling prophylactic retrievable inferior vena cava filter, resolution of risk factors for venous thromboembolism.
C. Venography at time of retrieval procedure

Variant 8: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter for venous thromboembolism, now tolerating or completed therapeutic anticoagulation.

Variant 8: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter for venous thromboembolism, now tolerating or completed therapeutic anticoagulation.
A. CT venography prior to retrieval

Variant 8: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter for venous thromboembolism, now tolerating or completed therapeutic anticoagulation.
B. US duplex Doppler lower extremities prior to retrieval

Variant 8: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter for venous thromboembolism, now tolerating or completed therapeutic anticoagulation.
C. Venography at time of retrieval procedure

Variant 9: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter with failed first retrieval attempt.

Variant 9: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter with failed first retrieval attempt.
A. Convert to permanent device

Variant 9: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter with failed first retrieval attempt.
B. Re-attempt retrieval with advanced techniques

Variant 9: Indwelling retrievable inferior vena cava filter with failed first retrieval attempt.
C. Refer for surgical evaluation for retrieval

Summary of Highlights

Supporting Documents

The evidence table, literature search, and appendix for this topic are available at https://acsearch.acr.org/list. The appendix includes the strength of evidence assessment and the final rating round tabulations for each recommendation.

For additional information on the Appropriateness Criteria methodology and other supporting documents, please go to the ACR website at https://www.acr.org/Clinical-Resources/Clinical-Tools-and-Reference/Appropriateness-Criteria.

Appropriateness Category Names and Definitions

Appropriateness Category Name	Appropriateness Rating	Appropriateness Category Definition
Usually Appropriate	7, 8, or 9	The imaging procedure or treatment is indicated in the specified clinical scenarios at a favorable risk-benefit ratio for patients.
May Be Appropriate	4, 5, or 6	The imaging procedure or treatment may be indicated in the specified clinical scenarios as an alternative to imaging procedures or treatments with a more favorable risk-benefit ratio, or the risk-benefit ratio for patients is equivocal.
May Be Appropriate (Disagreement)	5	The individual ratings are too dispersed from the panel median. The different label provides transparency regarding the panel’s recommendation. “May be appropriate” is the rating category and a rating of 5 is assigned.
Usually Not Appropriate	1, 2, or 3	The imaging procedure or treatment is unlikely to be indicated in the specified clinical scenarios, or the risk-benefit ratio for patients is likely to be unfavorable.

References

1.	Wells PS, Forgie MA, Rodger MA. Treatment of venous thromboembolism. [Review]. JAMA. 311(7):717-28, 2014 Feb 19.
2.	Cohen AT, Tapson VF, Bergmann JF, et al. Venous thromboembolism risk and prophylaxis in the acute hospital care setting (ENDORSE study): a multinational cross-sectional study. Lancet. 2008;371(9610):387-394.
3.	Kearon C, Akl EA, Ornelas J, et al. Antithrombotic Therapy for VTE Disease: CHEST Guideline and Expert Panel Report. Chest. 149(2):315-352, 2016 Feb.
4.	Tapson VF. Acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(10):1037-1052.
5.	Wang SL, Lloyd AJ. Clinical review: inferior vena cava filters (IVCF) in the age of patient-centered outcomes. Ann Med. 2013;45(7):474-481.
6.	Young T, Tang H, Hughes R. Vena caval filters for the prevention of pulmonary embolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010:CD006212.
7.	Uberoi R, Tapping CR, Chalmers N, Allgar V. British Society of Interventional Radiology (BSIR) Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) Filter Registry. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2013;36(6):1548-1561.
8.	Eifler AC, Lewandowski RJ, Gupta R, et al. Optional or permanent: clinical factors that optimize inferior vena cava filter utilization. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2013;24(1):35-40.
9.	Vijay K, Hughes JA, Burdette AS, et al. Fractured Bard Recovery, G2, and G2 express inferior vena cava filters: incidence, clinical consequences, and outcomes of removal attempts. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2012;23(2):188-194.
10.	Weinberg I, Abtahian F, Debiasi R, et al. Effect of delayed inferior vena cava filter retrieval after early initiation of anticoagulation. Am J Cardiol. 113(2):389-94, 2014 Jan 15.
11.	Morales JP, Li X, Irony TZ, Ibrahim NG, Moynahan M, Cavanaugh KJ, Jr. Decision analysis of retrievable inferior vena cava filters in patients without pulmonary embolism. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2013;1:376-84.
12.	Angel LF, Tapson V, Galgon RE, Restrepo MI, Kaufman J. Systematic review of the use of retrievable inferior vena cava filters. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22(11):1522-1530 e1523.
13.	Montgomery JP, Kaufman JA. A Critical Review of Available Retrievable Inferior Vena Cava Filters and Future Directions. Semin Intervent Radiol. 2016;33(2):79-87.
14.	Andreoli JM, Lewandowski RJ, Vogelzang RL, Ryu RK. Comparison of complication rates associated with permanent and retrievable inferior vena cava filters: a review of the MAUDE database. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2014;25(8):1181-1185.
15.	Baadh AS, Zikria JF, Rivoli S, Graham RE, Javit D, Ansell JE. Indications for inferior vena cava filter placement: do physicians comply with guidelines?. Journal of Vascular & Interventional Radiology. 23(8):989-95, 2012 Aug.J Vasc Interv Radiol. 23(8):989-95, 2012 Aug.
16.	Sader RB, Friedman A, Berkowitz E, Martin E. Inferior vena cava filters and their varying compliance with the ACCP and the SIR guidelines. South Med J. 2014;107(9):585-590.
17.	White RH, Geraghty EM, Brunson A, et al. High variation between hospitals in vena cava filter use for venous thromboembolism. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(7):506-512.
18.	Kaufman JA, Kinney TB, Streiff MB, et al. Guidelines for the use of retrievable and convertible vena cava filters: report from the Society of Interventional Radiology multidisciplinary consensus conference. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2006;17(3):449-459.
19.	Giannoudis PV, Pountos I, Pape HC, Patel JV. Safety and efficacy of vena cava filters in trauma patients. Injury. 2007;38(1):7-18.
20.	Malinoski D, Ewing T, Patel MS, et al. Risk factors for venous thromboembolism in critically ill trauma patients who cannot receive chemical prophylaxis. Injury. 44(1):80-5, 2013 Jan.Injury. 44(1):80-5, 2013 Jan.
21.	Rajasekhar A, Crowther M. Inferior vena caval filter insertion prior to bariatric surgery: a systematic review of the literature. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(6):1266-1270.
22.	Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(12):1139-1151.
23.	Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, et al. A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(7):409-415.
24.	Bikdeli B, Chatterjee S, Desai NR, et al. Inferior Vena Cava Filters to Prevent Pulmonary Embolism: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017;70:1587-97.
25.	Isogai T, Yasunaga H, Matsui H, Tanaka H, Horiguchi H, Fushimi K. Effectiveness of inferior vena cava filters on mortality as an adjuvant to antithrombotic therapy. American Journal of Medicine. 128(3):312.e23-31, 2015 Mar.
26.	Raphael IJ, McKenzie JC, Zmistowski B, Brown DB, Parvizi J, Austin MS. Pulmonary embolism after total joint arthroplasty: cost and effectiveness of four treatment modalities. J Arthroplasty. 29(5):933-7, 2014 May.
27.	Stein PD, Matta F, Keyes DC, Willyerd GL. Impact of vena cava filters on in-hospital case fatality rate from pulmonary embolism. Am J Med. 2012;125(5):478-484.
28.	Stein PD, Matta F. Vena cava filters in unstable elderly patients with acute pulmonary embolism. American Journal of Medicine. 127(3):222-5, 2014 Mar.
29.	Carlbom DJ, Davidson BL. Pulmonary embolism in the critically ill. Chest. 2007;132(1):313-324.
30.	Pacouret G, Alison D, Pottier JM, Bertrand P, Charbonnier B. Free-floating thrombus and embolic risk in patients with angiographically confirmed proximal deep venous thrombosis. A prospective study. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157(3):305-308.
31.	Hann CL, Streiff MB. The role of vena caval filters in the management of venous thromboembolism. Blood Rev. 2005;19(4):179-202.
32.	Matsuo K, Carter CM, Ahn EH, et al. Inferior vena cava filter placement and risk of hematogenous distant metastasis in ovarian cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 2013;36(4):362-367.
33.	Stein PD, Matta F, Sabra MJ. Case fatality rate with vena cava filters in hospitalized stable patients with cancer and pulmonary embolism. Am J Med. 2013;126(9):819-824.
34.	Abtahian F, Hawkins BM, Ryan DP, et al. Inferior vena cava filter usage, complications, and retrieval rate in cancer patients. Am J Med. 2014;127(11):1111-1117.
35.	Barginear MF, Gralla RJ, Bradley TP, et al. Investigating the benefit of adding a vena cava filter to anticoagulation with fondaparinux sodium in patients with cancer and venous thromboembolism in a prospective randomized clinical trial. Support Care Cancer. 2012;20(11):2865-2872.
36.	Segal JB, Streiff MB, Hofmann LV, Thornton K, Bass EB. Management of venous thromboembolism: a systematic review for a practice guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(3):211-222.
37.	Stein PD, Matta F. Vena cava filters in hospitalised patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2013;109(5):897-900.
38.	Krivak TC, Zorn KK. Venous thromboembolism in obstetrics and gynecology. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109(3):761-777.
39.	Stone SE, Morris TA. Pulmonary embolism during and after pregnancy. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(10 Suppl):S294-300.
40.	Timsit JF, Farkas JC, Boyer JM, et al. Central vein catheter-related thrombosis in intensive care patients: incidence, risks factors, and relationship with catheter-related sepsis. Chest. 1998;114(1):207-213.
41.	Ray CE, Jr., Prochazka A. The need for anticoagulation following inferior vena cava filter placement: systematic review. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2008;31(2):316-324.
42.	Shaw CM, Scorza LB, Waybill PN, Singh H, Lynch FC. Optional vena cava filter use in the elderly population. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22(6):824-828.
43.	Muriel A, Jimenez D, Aujesky D, et al. Survival effects of inferior vena cava filter in patients with acute symptomatic venous thromboembolism and a significant bleeding risk. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 63(16):1675-83, 2014 Apr 29.
44.	Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) randomized study. Circulation. 2005;112(3):416-422.
45.	Ren W, Li Z, Fu Z, Fu Q. Analysis of risk factors for recurrence of deep venous thrombosis in lower extremities. Med Sci Monit. 2014;20:199-204.
46.	Smouse HB, Mendes R, Bosiers M, Van Ha TG, Crabtree T. The RETRIEVE trial: safety and effectiveness of the retrievable crux vena cava filter. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2013;24(5):609-621.
47.	Athanasoulis CA, Kaufman JA, Halpern EF, Waltman AC, Geller SC, Fan CM. Inferior vena caval filters: review of a 26-year single-center clinical experience. Radiology. 2000 Jul;216(1):54-66.
48.	Joels CS, Sing RF, Heniford BT. Complications of inferior vena cava filters. Am Surg. 2003;69(8):654-659.
49.	Stavropoulos SW. Inferior vena cava filters. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 2004;7(2):91-95.
50.	Cina A, Masselli G, Di Stasi C, et al. Computed tomography imaging of vena cava filter complications: a pictorial review. Acta Radiol. 2006;47(2):135-144.
51.	Mismetti P, Laporte S, Pellerin O, et al. Effect of a retrievable inferior vena cava filter plus anticoagulation vs anticoagulation alone on risk of recurrent pulmonary embolism: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313(16):1627-1635.
52.	Seshadri T, Tran H, Lau KK, Tan B, Gan TE. Ins and outs of inferior vena cava filters in patients with venous thromboembolism: the experience at Monash Medical Centre and review of the published reports. Intern Med J. 2008;38(1):38-43.
53.	Hoffer EK, Mueller RJ, Luciano MR, Lee NN, Michaels AT, Gemery JM. Safety and efficacy of the Gunther Tulip retrievable vena cava filter: midterm outcomes. Cardiovascular & Interventional Radiology. 36(4):998-1005, 2013 Aug.
54.	Ho KM, Tan JA, Burrell M, Rao S, Misur P. Venous thrombotic, thromboembolic, and mechanical complications after retrievable inferior vena cava filters for major trauma. Br J Anaesth. 2015;114(1):63-69.
55.	Lorch H, Welger D, Wagner V, et al. Current practice of temporary vena cava filter insertion: a multicenter registry. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2000;11(1):83-88.
56.	Al-Hakim R, Kee ST, Olinger K, Lee EW, Moriarty JM, McWilliams JP. Inferior vena cava filter retrieval: effectiveness and complications of routine and advanced techniques. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2014;25(6):933-939; quiz 940.
57.	Nicholson W, Nicholson WJ, Tolerico P, et al. Prevalence of fracture and fragment embolization of Bard retrievable vena cava filters and clinical implications including cardiac perforation and tamponade. Arch Intern Med. 170(20):1827-31, 2010 Nov 08.
58.	U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Removing Retrievable Inferior Vena Cava Filters: FDA Safety Communication. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/AlertsandNotices/ucm396377.htm.
59.	Ghofrani HA, D'Armini AM, Grimminger F, et al. Riociguat for the treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 2013;369:319-29.
60.	Pengo V, Lensing AW, Prins MH, et al. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(22):2257-2264.
61.	Madani M, Mayer E, Fadel E, Jenkins DP. Pulmonary Endarterectomy. Patient Selection, Technical Challenges, and Outcomes. [Review]. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 13 Suppl 3:S240-7, 2016 07.
62.	Fedullo P, Kerr KM, Kim NH, Auger WR. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(12):1605-1613.
63.	Jenkins D. New interventions to treat chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Heart 2018.
64.	Geerts WH, Jay RM, Code KI, et al. A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(10):701-707.
65.	Somarouthu B, Yeddula K, Wicky S, Hirsch JA, Kalva SP. Long-term safety and effectiveness of inferior vena cava filters in patients with stroke. J Neurointerv Surg. 2011;3(2):141-146.
66.	Johns JS, Nguyen C, Sing RF. Vena cava filters in spinal cord injuries: evolving technology. J Spinal Cord Med. 2006;29(3):183-190.
67.	Sarani B, Chun A, Venbrux A. Role of optional (retrievable) IVC filters in surgical patients at risk for venous thromboembolic disease. J Am Coll Surg. 2005;201(6):957-964.
68.	Geerts WH. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in high-risk patients. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2006:462-466.
69.	Girard TD, Philbrick JT, Fritz Angle J, Becker DM. Prophylactic vena cava filters for trauma patients: a systematic review of the literature. Thromb Res. 2003;112(5-6):261-267.
70.	Hemmila MR, Osborne NH, Henke PK, et al. Prophylactic Inferior Vena Cava Filter Placement Does Not Result in a Survival Benefit for Trauma Patients. Ann Surg 2015;262:577-85.
71.	Sarosiek S, Rybin D, Weinberg J, Burke PA, Kasotakis G, Sloan JM. Association Between Inferior Vena Cava Filter Insertion in Trauma Patients and In-Hospital and Overall Mortality. JAMA Surg 2017;152:75-81.
72.	Rajasekhar A, Lottenberg L, Lottenberg R, et al. A pilot study on the randomization of inferior vena cava filter placement for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk trauma patients. J Trauma. 2011;71(2):323-328; discussion 328-329.
73.	Haut ER, Garcia LJ, Shihab HM, et al. The effectiveness of prophylactic inferior vena cava filters in trauma patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Surg. 2014;149(2):194-202.
74.	Still J, Friedman B, Furman S, et al. Experience with the insertion of vena caval filters in acutely burned patients. Am Surg. 2000;66(3):277-279.
75.	Brotman DJ, Shihab HM, Prakasa KR, et al. Pharmacologic and mechanical strategies for preventing venous thromboembolism after bariatric surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Surg. 2013;148(7):675-686.
76.	Li W, Gorecki P, Semaan E, Briggs W, Tortolani AJ, D'Ayala M. Concurrent prophylactic placement of inferior vena cava filter in gastric bypass and adjustable banding operations in the Bariatric Outcomes Longitudinal Database. J Vasc Surg. 2012;55(6):1690-1695.
77.	Rowland SP, Dharmarajah B, Moore HM, et al. Inferior vena cava filters for prevention of venous thromboembolism in obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery: a systematic review. Ann Surg 2015;261:35-45.
78.	Ginzburg E, Cohn SM, Lopez J, Jackowski J, Brown M, Hameed SM. Randomized clinical trial of intermittent pneumatic compression and low molecular weight heparin in trauma. Br J Surg. 2003;90(11):1338-1344.
79.	Dietch ZC, Edwards BL, Thames M, Shah PM, Williams MD, Sawyer RG. Rate of lower-extremity ultrasonography in trauma patients is associated with rate of deep venous thrombosis but not pulmonary embolism. Surgery. 158(2):379-85, 2015 Aug.Surgery. 158(2):379-85, 2015 Aug.
80.	Sharifi M, Bay C, Skrocki L, Lawson D, Mazdeh S. Role of IVC filters in endovenous therapy for deep venous thrombosis: the FILTER-PEVI (filter implantation to lower thromboembolic risk in percutaneous endovenous intervention) trial. Cardiovascular & Interventional Radiology. 35(6):1408-13, 2012 Dec.
81.	Gyang E, Zayed M, Harris EJ, Lee JT, Dalman RL, Mell MW. Factors impacting follow-up care after placement of temporary inferior vena cava filters. J Vasc Surg. 2013;58(2):440-445.
82.	Johnson ON, 3rd, Gillespie DL, Aidinian G, White PW, Adams E, Fox CJ. The use of retrievable inferior vena cava filters in severely injured military trauma patients. J Vasc Surg. 2009;49(2):410-416; discussion 416.
83.	Minocha J, Idakoji I, Riaz A, et al. Improving inferior vena cava filter retrieval rates: impact of a dedicated inferior vena cava filter clinic. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2010;21(12):1847-1851.
84.	Ko SH, Reynolds BR, Nicholas DH, et al. Institutional protocol improves retrievable inferior vena cava filter recovery rate. Surgery. 2009;146(4):809-814; discussion 814-806.
85.	Kalina M, Bartley M, Cipolle M, Tinkoff G, Stevenson S, Fulda G. Improved removal rates for retrievable inferior vena cava filters with the use of a 'filter registry'. Am Surg. 2012;78(1):94-97.
86.	Lynch FC. A method for following patients with retrievable inferior vena cava filters: results and lessons learned from the first 1,100 patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22(11):1507-1512.
87.	Hoppe H, Kaufman JA, Barton RE, et al. Safety of inferior vena cava filter retrieval in anticoagulated patients. Chest. 2007;132(1):31-36.
88.	Kuo WT, Odegaard JI, Louie JD, et al. Photothermal ablation with the excimer laser sheath technique for embedded inferior vena cava filter removal: initial results from a prospective study. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22(6):813-823.
89.	Kuo WT, Cupp JS. The excimer laser sheath technique for embedded inferior vena cava filter removal. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2010;21(12):1896-1899.
90.	Iliescu B, Haskal ZJ. Advanced techniques for removal of retrievable inferior vena cava filters. [Review]. Cardiovascular & Interventional Radiology. 35(4):741-50, 2012 Aug.
91.	Rana MA, Gloviczki P, Kalra M, Bjarnason H, Huang Y, Fleming MD. Open surgical removal of retained and dislodged inferior vena cava filters. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2015;3:201-6.

Disclaimer

The ACR Committee on Appropriateness Criteria and its expert panels have developed criteria for determining appropriate imaging examinations for diagnosis and treatment of specified medical condition(s). These criteria are intended to guide radiologists, radiation oncologists and referring physicians in making decisions regarding radiologic imaging and treatment. Generally, the complexity and severity of a patient’s clinical condition should dictate the selection of appropriate imaging procedures or treatments. Only those examinations generally used for evaluation of the patient’s condition are ranked. Other imaging studies necessary to evaluate other co-existent diseases or other medical consequences of this condition are not considered in this document. The availability of equipment or personnel may influence the selection of appropriate imaging procedures or treatments. Imaging techniques classified as investigational by the FDA have not been considered in developing these criteria; however, study of new equipment and applications should be encouraged. The ultimate decision regarding the appropriateness of any specific radiologic examination or treatment must be made by the referring physician and radiologist in light of all the circumstances presented in an individual examination.